Practices of Engineering Training & Importance of
Vocational Content
Paul Sagala
Phantom Solutions, Ltd
Abstract
In the opinion of global authorities at large, the impact and success of engineering
training programmes very much depend on:
- Level of technological development by way of preliminary exposure, to design, even
toys etc;
- School systems;
- Curriculum design in steps to follow, identification and analysis for good methodology;
- Challenges on commencement, namely, pupilage / orientation programs;
- Closeness of training to market needs;
- Adequacy of practical skills; and,
- Effectiveness of training, ie, 'what should one know in disregard to how
it is learnt is not ideal', to mention but a few.
Some countries like India took a critical review of their engineering industry needs after
World War II, and are, no doubt, currently reaping from implementation of the way forward
that was precipitated then by various key stakeholders.
Former British 'territories', Uganda inclusive, have been influenced
by the UK training models, with varying results, a consequence of the 'technology
gap' and thinking of administrators / opinion leaders.
The case of France and Germany that differs somewhat in approach, style, and,
interestingly impact on the profession and the roles engineers have been able to play in
their economies, is discussed.
That the next 10-Year Plan foresees higher prioritisation of vocationalisation of
education in Uganda, is viewed as amongst the most healthy developments. The project aimed
at supporting vocationalisation in education, courtesy of the German taxpayer, is seen as a
timely seed to the programme.
Last but not least, we take stock of the situation in Uganda, speculating on what may be
the way to go, making reference to importance of greater vocational content, although much
more costly at school level than ordinary ones. We go further to highlight the importance
and urgency of creating a 'balanced' mix of technical cadres, and, need
for evolving confidence in practitioners for greater technological innovation and job
creation and involvement of the Private Sector actively in the new / downstream
developments. Prior to implementation of new plans for the coming decade, we advocate for
higher and effective vocational content in existing education systems, not to mention the
urgent need for rationalisation.
Global Views
In a series by UNESCO on engineering education as edited by Grayson, L. P
[7], training of
engineers is a 'responsibility shared by universities, professional societies and
the employer', and is a life-long continuous process. The publication goes
further to make the following observations:
Developing countries had many similarities in training for engineers, varied from
approaches in more advanced countries. Many scholars have observed that developing countries
are affected with a 'less-endowed scientific heritage'. By this they
mean, many students make their 'first acquaintance' with basic tools in
the trade at university. These often include the 'T-square', 'piston',
'armature', and, imagination of concepts like 'electromagnetic fields',
'fuel - air mixture for combustion', 'concrete and its setting', to mention
but a few.
In stark contrast, exposure to a 'technical environment' and often
terminology in the developed world is by far greater, enabling many to opt for a career in
engineering, with a greater familiarity of what it is about.
The adequacy of building confidence in a young technical trainee, starting with early
engineering building blocks through more advanced theory and other training, can mean a
lifetime difference between a 'confident' engineer, keen on innovation
and product development, as opposed to one 'not so comfortable' with
technological advancement for lack of self-confidence in taking up the challenge.
Case of India
Grayson presented the case of India as having had a population of the order of 150 million
people around 1870, with 549 students in four engineering colleges, with the system of
education developed along lines of the United Kingdom, very much like ours in Uganda. As
World War II broke out, there were eleven engineering colleges with 2000 enrolled students,
with a major change and diversification in curricula.
As a result of the above, industrial development was given a boost after the war, having
realised and implemented upgrading of facilities for engineering education to try to meet
needs for quality and numbers for the nation's industry manpower demands.
Foreign expertise was also difficult to access as there were requirements in the West for
reconstruction after the war. This resulted in the creation of the All-India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE) in 1945, and, Scientific Manpower Committee (SMC) in 1947, the
two of which were to make radical improvements. AICTE was charged with the apex role of
modelling engineering education, while SMC was placed under the ministry for education with
all state governments represented, ministries in the central government, industry, commerce,
labour, the professional societies, technical institutions and Parliament, to advise on
overall improvement of technical education, both before gaining independence in 1947.
For inadequacies in local technical capacities, large industrial and reconstruction
programmes were taken on with substantial foreign collaboration for skills and knowledge
acquisition. Challenges were twofold, namely, inadequate supply of technical manpower, and
two, quality of the 'product' at the time was inadequate. High priority
was then accorded to technical education, with large financial provisions being made by both
central and state governments. Engineering colleges grew in number and scope of coverage,
extending the same to creation of polytechnics for the supply of technicians. Postgraduate
activities commenced after independence in the country.
With time, there was excess capacity to produce engineers, over and above projected
industry demands, resulting in scaling down, and over the years, India has come to be
counted as one of those countries to be reckoned with in technological prowess.
Models of United Kingdom (UK)
The UK is amongst the big seven highly industrialised countries, referred to as the
'G7'. It has been a long time international player in development, and
no doubt, attained significant prowess in the professional area, both in terms of growth and achievement.
UK offers several routes to becoming an engineer:
Straight Degree Course From School followed by Pupilage
Amongst these is one where students can come directly from ordinary schools, embark on a
3-4 year straight degree course, and proceeding to undergo 'pupilage',
or, grooming in the professional development under a senior engineer, very much like
internship in the medical profession. This system has been, to the best of my knowledge,
used in many countries formerly administered / mentored by UK.
Sandwich Degree Course
Such a programme, in principle, alternates between the engineering school and relevant
field employment practice. It therefore takes longer, but allows a better 'theory
/ practice' blend, enabling a candidate to relate theory and practice better.
Upgrading From Technician to Engineer
It needs to be mentioned that, a technician and an engineer do cover very much the same
'subject' areas, the major difference being that technicians focus
more on practical skills, while engineers tackle more advanced theory. The divide is more
'hypothetical', and, can be according to several parameters, including
but not limited to level of technological development of a state, and, level of
responsibility assigned on commencement of work. This scheme presumes
'good' prior technical training and experience, and, helps the student
to study in a more familiar environment.
There are other variants, but the above routes are very much typical. There are categories
such as that of 'technician-engineers', a feature to be found in other
engineering education systems.
Continental Europe Practices
Continental France and Germany vary somewhat from what is prevailing in UK. France
divorces engineering career training from traditional universities. As a result,
equivalences are more 'subtle'. As a manifestation as to their
'credibility', such institutions produce engineers, researchers,
managers and administrators who end up running the 'majority' of
corporations and top civil service positions. This is more the rule than the exception, as
more universities have now come to offer programmes.
The German model on the other hand describes a 'dual system',
demarcating 'training' in enterprises, and,
'legislation' as evolved by government, with labour offices having a
key role to play.
These two big European Union (EU) member states, on the basis of my knowledge and
assessment, can be said in summary to have an edge in so far as providing very good
practical skills, as exemplified by their technological prowess. A case in point is the post
'Hitler' World War II Marshall Plan for Germany, for which only
resources were required as Germany had the technical skills necessary to rebuild itself.
The French Vocational Training Model Highlights
These may be summarised under some sub-headings as hereinafter:
(General Education)
- Under a free education system in France, compulsory between 6 and 16 years of age,
94% of young people aged 2 - 22 [8]years were undergoing educational training during the
years1999 - 2000;
- In 2001, cost of education was 7% of GDP, equivalent to 100.7 billion euro;
(Overview)
- As a life-long activity, one may study, with one in three workers training in year
2000 [9] ;
- Anybody at work can participate in vocational training irrespective of age;
- Vocational training was granted 1.7% of GDP in 2000
- Vocational training is offered as part of full-time education and apprenticeship,
beside being accessible all along in life;
- Vocational training is gaining greater recognition as a 'work based
learning system';
- Co-operation between schools and business has significantly increased of late;
- European Union (EU) is supporting development of the learning process handsomely;
- Lately, France and Germany have agreed to accept vocational
'graduates' from any of the countries to work anywhere amongst them;
(Three Education Options)
- Three main choices exist in education, namely, general, vocational courses and
technological curricula;
- Vocational and technological categories result in diplomas ranging from
Certificate of Professional Aptitude (CAP) (level V), to an engineering degree
(level I) and include the 'BTS', a higher grade technician's
diploma, of 2 years study after leaving school.
(Professionalism for Higher Education)
- In 2002 - '03, 46% of all students were registered for technical / vocational
bias from technician level (2 years after school) to engineer (5 years after school);
- France's leading engineering colleges, 'Grandes Ecoles', with a reputation for
excellence are controlled by various ministries, for instance, for Education,
Defence, Industry, Transport, Agriculture and Fisheries.
(Lifelong vocational learning)
- Companies are obliged to participate in funding of training of their staff;
- Employees may train at request of employer or on their own during leave periods;
- Schemes also exist for non-salaried workers, with their own financial
contributions called for.
Vocational Education in Germany: Elements of The 'Dual System'
The book by Greinert [10] on history, organisation and prospects of vocational education in
Germany presents a good expose' to their system, from the Division of Vocational Training,
Technical Education and Human Resource Development for Trade and Development, Deutsche
Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). In 1990, unification of Germany added new
demands on the vocational system, with an additional 17 million people and an increased
demand for 256,000 more trainees.
Germany describes a 'dual' system as, and I quote, 'two
equal and equally regarded training sites have been amalgamated to form one system, an
integrated whole, in which each part has clearly delineated responsibilities and
tasks' as defined by Stratmann in his book of 1975.
The term dual carries with it more subtle components, namely, the 'training
market', and, 'vocational training legislation'. The market,
as of 1987, comprised of the order of 500,000 enterprises out of a total of 2.6 million,
with smaller enterprises participating on a smaller scale, with 40% of those with 5 to 9
employees; those with 10 - 199 employees assuming 50-75% amongst their numbers.
Big participating firms in 1975 were in the following categories:
- Steel construction, mechanical engineering and vehicle construction companies;
- Commercial sector, related trades, publishing and press;
- Building industry;
- Electrical engineering, precision mechanics and optics industries;
- Woodworking, paper and printing;
- Foods, beverages and tobacco;
- Iron and non-ferrous metals, foundries;
- Banking and insurance;
- Other service industries;
- Chemical industry, mineral oil, plastics, rubber and asbestos;
- Regional authorities and insurance companies; and,
- Restaurants and hotels, at the top
On the other hand, the legal framework, there is a Vocational Training Act (VTA), which in
sections 25 and 28 spells out state recognised training occupations with related
legislation. In 1990, 378 occupations were listed in 'Directory of
state-recognised training occupations', 229 of which were recognised by the
VTA of 1990. The law allows for variation in structure, quality and quantity.
Trainees are also allowed varying backgrounds, as narrated in 1988. Distribution of
educational backgrounds in 1986 had 82.5% having a general school education, 17.5% from
vocational schools. With time, trainees' backgrounds have been rising to those of going to
university, with substantially greater women participation. Between 1970 and 1988, average
age of trainees rose from 16.6 to 18.7. By the mid-nineties, more than two-thirds are 18
years and over, in view of greater trends for desire for higher qualifications and more
vocational content.
Supply and demand of vocational training has been kept in balance by the labour offices
that have the monopoly of vocational guidance and job placement in Germany.
This subject, shows very interesting differences between Germany and what is obtaining in
Uganda, due in part to a host of parameters / considerations. There are several lessons to
learn, and to see how to chart our way forward. No doubt, we will need to further address
these in future issues.
Prospective Uganda's Vocational Training Focus, 2004 - 2015
The Education Planning Department (EPD) of the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) is
in advanced stages of putting together a 10-Year 'Education Sector Strategic Plan
(ESIP): 2004-2015' to succeed the 'Education Sector Investment
Plan, 1998-2003. Along with the support of its development partners, MoES has
addressed the Universal Primary Education (UPE) objectives of free education at that level,
with substantial achievements. As the phase I of ESIP drew toward the end, outputs of UPE
and their destiny became more prominent, and, vocational biased training, our main interest,
gained prominence.
Key considerations in the 'Way Forward' in the partnership with development partners, may
briefly be cast in the following, each with noble objectives;
- Commitments in the names of 'Millenium Development Goals',
(MDG's); 'Education for All', (EFA);
- Medium Term Review of ESIP; and,
- The broader government's 'Poverty Eradication Action Plan',
(PEAP), beside others.
Vocational training under what is termed 'Business, Technical and Vocational
Education and Training' (BTVET) gains prominence in future plans in a number
of perspectives, viz, as a means to employment creation, an area calling for close
inter-ministry co-operation, and probably as important, supply of the much desired technical
manpower for the several openings that exist in the general commercial and business setting,
and for our purposes, manufacturing / industry in particular.
(Wider Vocational Perspective)
Proposals for creation of specific qualifications and a framework for implementation are
most timely. It is our contention, that indeed, improvements in other already existing
technical training programmes need to be given as important consideration for
complimentarity and for greatest impact.
(Complimentary Programmes)
It is gratifying to note the support of the people of Germany through their Technical
Cooperation arm 'GTZ' in co-operation with 'KFW, DED, InWEnt,
CIM and SES' in the on-going project titled 'Promotion of
Employment Oriented Vocational and Technical Training' (PEVOT).
It is our conviction that Uganda stands to benefit greatly from this world acclaimed
success story in vocational training of Germany. It is our intention to take up this
programme in greater detail in issues to come.
Where Does Uganda Stand and What Needs to be Done?
(Where Do We Stand)
It my view that the UK system as largely practiced in its former
'territories' needs modification in order to fit into the usually less
developed industrial settings in the developing world at large, particularly the straight 3-4 year course straight from regular schools, followed by pupilage. Instead, technician
upgrading to an engineer and sandwich training programmes would be more suitable.
(Observations on the Past)
The following emerge and are pertinent:
It is my contention, that what would benefit Uganda better is more of the
'technician upgrading to an engineer', in the British system, an
infrequent occurrence.
- Instead, the trend of 'technical colleges' converting to 'conventional' degree
programs seems to have been gaining ground.
- At the time of independence, a number of technical institutions existed, and, it
is my belief that they were on a sound footing, in terms of programs offered by way of
courses offered, workshops and equipments therein, infrastructure, technical training
manpower, comprehensive training programs, blending theory with adequate practice,
thereby turning out potentially 'ready made job makers'.
- Creation of many 'satellite' Uganda Technical College extensions was an excellent
idea that could have possibly been better prepared for.
- As Professor Keith M Lewin [11] observed, vocational training viewed in the concept
of post-primary education is much more expensive at a factor of five that in general
secondary schools, and as one may imagine, engineering technical education is as much if
not more expensive.
- Yet the need for industrialisation calls for provision of a big supply of suitably
trained artisans, technicians and engineers if local technological growth and
development to realise the cherished self-sustaining economy is to be realised.
- Schools of engineering versus artisan / craftsmen and technician's schools and
colleges need to be put in balance to guarantee availability of the necessary 'pyramid'
manpower, with many support artisans for every supervising technician and similarly
upwards to engineers at the top.
- As Lewin further observed, education is currently putting a strain on national
resources that does not allow much room for growth, yet not enough has been achieved.
This means that we need to 'rethink' and devise ways to provide priorities to guarantee
provision of a balanced output of well-trained manpower. This suggests that rather
than create many under-facilitated vocational / technical institutions, we may consider
provision of fewer but effective institutions that will guarantee creation of 'job
makers and a competent pool to meet urgent needs of enterprises.
(Potential Benefits of Continental Europe Systems)
From our brief discussion above, there appears to be a lot to benefit from German and
French practices. Some of the handicaps in place is the 'yet to develop' industrial setting,
for which measures would need to be designed to circumvent them.
(Vocational Focus in Next Decade A Plus)
This new approach needs to be lauded, as it has potential to re-align our education system
to be better geared to our needs. Teething problems are likely to arise from need for
greater public awareness of issues, concepts, ideals and price premium, which in partnership
with donors we can tackle successfully.
(What Needs to be Done?)
Some thoughts on the 'Way Forward' include the following:
- In the short run, it may be useful to strengthen vocational components in existing
programmes as new ones are developed.
- The new focus on vocational training needs to be adopted, making necessary
amendments to take cogniscance of differences of a 'young, less developed' industrial setting.
- Programmes such as PEVOT, courtesy of the people of Germany, should be taken
advantage of fully.
- Additional basket donor support is required, perhaps examining the prospects of
sponsorship of beneficiaries to establishments abroad with a bigger bias than the
traditional higher education areas.
- Legislation needs to be developed, bringing government(s) more into the process,
with a mix of foreign experts working with local counterparts.
- Enterprise development shift needs to be encouraged to sprout and grow for
long-term full growth of the model.
- The private sector needs to be brought in full partnership right from the start.
